Ethiopia- a landlocked state in East Africa. It borders Eritrea in the north, Djibouti in the northeast, Somalia and unrecognized Somaliland in the east, Kenya in the south and Sudan in the west.
Ethiopia is the highest mountainous country on the African continent. A significant part of its territory is occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands, stretching from north to south of Ethiopia. The highest part of the highlands is the northern one. The highest points of the country are located here - Ras Dashen (4620 m) and Talo (4413 m). In the east, the highlands drop sharply into the Afar depression, one of the lowest points in Africa.
The western part of the Ethiopian Highlands has a flatter topography and descends to the Sudanese border in small steps. The plains also occupy a significant part of Ethiopia's territory. The largest is located in the east of the country. In some places it becomes a plateau with a height of more than 1000 m. This is one of the driest parts of Ethiopia. Also, small plains sandwiched between mountain ranges are located in the north and west of the country.
Most of the rivers in western Ethiopia belong to the Nile basin. The largest among them is Abbay, or the Blue Nile. The largest lake in Ethiopia, Tana, is also located here.
In the east, the rivers are less deep, which is associated with a drier climate. The largest river is Jubba. Ethiopia is characterized by the presence of small lakes in the Great Rift Zone.
Climate in Ethiopia
The entire territory of Ethiopia is located in the subequatorial and equatorial climatic zones. But the fact that most of the country is located on the Ethiopian Highlands explains Ethiopia's milder and wetter climate. The temperature here is +25…+30 all year round and there is sufficient rainfall.
The eastern regions of Ethiopia are the complete opposite - they have a hot and dry desert climate. In general, Ethiopia is not characterized by temperature changes throughout the year. The only difference is the night and day temperatures: here the difference is about 15 degrees.
Ethiopia's climate allows you to travel around the country all year round. The travel time depends on which area you want to visit and what the purpose of your trip is.
Last changes: 04/26/2013Population
The population is about 88 million people. (2010). Average life expectancy is 53 years for men, 58 years for women. Urban population - 17%.
Ethnic composition: Oromo - 32.1%, Amhara - 30.1%, Tigrayan - 6.2%, Somalia - 5.9%, Gurage - 4.3%, Sidamo - 3.5%, Uolaita - 2.4 %, other nationalities - 15.4%.
Ethiopia is the only traditionally Christian African country. One of its main religions is Eastern Christianity (Ethiopian Church), and the position of Islam is also strong in all peripheral regions. The Ethiopian Church adheres to Monophysitism. Lutheranism has been actively spreading among the Oromo people in recent decades, as a result of which the Ethiopian Mekane Yesus Church is the fastest growing Lutheran denomination in the world.
According to the 1994 census: Christians - 60.8% (Monophysites - 50.6%, Protestants - 10.2%), Muslims - 32.8%, African cults - 4.6%, others - 1.8%.
Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. It is one of the Ethio-Semitic languages belonging to the Semitic family, although it has a number of differences and has been largely Cushiticized.
Last changes: 04/26/2013Currency
Ethiopian birr (ETB)- monetary unit in Ethiopia. 1 birr = 100 centimes.
Currency (dollars, euros and British pounds) can be exchanged at the airport or in banks. Currency is also exchanged openly on the streets and in small shops (which is not legal), but at an exchange rate that is about 10% higher than the official one, and they do not provide certificates, which means that problems will arise at customs if you want to leave the country exchange the remaining Ethiopian birr for cash foreign currency.
Credit cards (Visa) and traveler's checks are generally accepted only in banks in Addis Ababa; in small towns their use may be difficult.
In order to easily change the remaining Ethiopian birr upon departure, you need to keep certificates of currency exchange, as well as have documents confirming the person’s intention to leave the country. This document can be an airline ticket or a passport with a valid exit visa.
Last changes: 04/26/2013Communications
Dialing code: 251
Internet domain: .et
How to call
To call from Russia to Ethiopia, you need to dial: 8 - dial tone - 10 - 251 - area code - subscriber number.
To call from Ethiopia to Russia, you need to dial: 00 - 7 area code - subscriber number.
Landline communications
You can make international calls in Ethiopia from hotels or telephone company offices.
mobile connection
Communication standard is GSM 900. Local operators cannot yet provide reliable reception throughout the country: currently reliable reception is provided mainly in large cities and their environs
Internet
In recent years, the Internet has developed in the largest cities of the country. There are several dozen internet cafes in Addis Ababa that use modem connections. Most often these are small rooms with old computers and crowded with young people communicating with the outside world both through e-mail and icq, and simply by playing computer games. The connection is slow, but sufficient for checking email.
In other cities the situation is worse, communications are often interrupted, connections are slow, and computers often freeze.
Last changes: 04/26/2013Shopping
Popular souvenirs from Ethiopia: Ethiopian coffee, wicker boxes, woolen carpets, leather and fur items, precious ivory and silver jewelry.
The most famous souvenirs of Addis Ababa are color paintings on leather, the plots of which have been repeated since ancient times and are historical sources akin to archaeological ones.
Last changes: 04/26/2013Sea and beaches
Ethiopia is landlocked.
Last changes: 04/26/2013History of Ethiopia
The Ethiopian highlands have been a habitat for people since ancient times, as evidenced by the remains of australopithecines in the Omo River valley and sites of the Olduvai culture in southern Ethiopia.
The Ethiopian Highlands is the supposed center of the formation of the Ethiopian anthropological type, Cushitic languages and one of the most ancient centers of agriculture.
Ancient history
In the VI - V centuries BC. e. People from various regions of Southern Arabia, including the Sabaean kingdom, settled on the Tigre plateau. They brought with them writing, the Semitic language, dry stone construction techniques and other achievements of civilization. Having mixed with the local population, they formed the ancient Ethiopian ethnic group.
In the 5th century BC. e. An independent kingdom formed on the Tigre plateau, which disintegrated in the 4th century BC. e.
In the first centuries A.D. e. The early feudal kingdom of Aksum arose in the north of modern Ethiopia. Its main port, Adulis, became the most important trading center on the way from Egypt to India, as well as to the shores of East Africa.
During the heyday of the Aksumite kingdom, in the 4th - 6th centuries, its hegemony extended to Nubia, southern Arabia, as well as vast areas of eastern Sudan, the Ethiopian Highlands and the northern Horn of Africa.
From the 4th century, Monophysite Christianity began to spread in the kingdom of Aksum.
The rise of the Arab Caliphate in the 7th century led to the decline of the Aksumite kingdom in the 8th - 9th centuries.
Middle Ages
Since the 9th century, Islam began to spread on the northern outskirts of the Ethiopian Highlands. The Muslim principalities that emerged there monopolized foreign trade.
In the first half of the 11th century, the Aksumite kingdom collapsed. On the territory of present-day Ethiopia, many principalities arose - Muslim, Christian, Judaic, pagan.
In the 12th century, the Christian principalities united under the rule of Lasta. This kingdom established ties with Egypt and Yemen, and economic and cultural growth began. In 1268 (or 1270), the Solomon dynasty came to power, claiming descent from the biblical king of Ancient Israel, Solomon. Its founder was Yikuno-Amlak (1268-1285). Emperor Amde-Tsyyon (1314-1344) subjugated the Christian, Judaic, pagan and Muslim principalities of the Ethiopian Highlands and created a vast empire.
Emperor Yishak (1414-1429) imposed tribute not only on Muslim states, but also on pagan kingdoms in the south of the Ethiopian Highlands. Emperor Zera-Yakob (1434-1468) spent his entire reign fighting to strengthen central power; he removed all the vassal princes and instead installed his daughters and sons as imperial governors, and then replaced them with his own officials. In 1445, Zera Yayakob defeated the Yifat Sultanate and several other Muslim principalities, and established hegemony in this part of Northeast Africa. Ties with Egypt and Yemen were strengthened, and contacts with Western Europe were established.
At the beginning of the 16th century. eastern neighbor and old enemy, the Adal Sultanate, began a fierce war against the Ethiopian Empire. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim (Ahmed Lefty) proclaimed jihad and between 1529-1540. conquered almost the entire territory of the Ethiopian Empire. Emperor Galaudehuos (1540-1559) managed to expel the Muslims with the help of the Portuguese. In 1557, the Turks captured Massawa and other ports on the Red Sea coast. During the same period, the Oromo black tribes began attacking weakened Ethiopia.
During the same period, the Jesuits appeared in Ethiopia; their penetration, together with the desire of the emperors to create an absolute monarchy on the European model, led to several wars on religious grounds, especially when Emperor Susnyjos (1607-1632) converted to Catholicism. These wars ended with the accession of Emperor Fasiledes (1632-1667), who expelled the Jesuits from Ethiopia and ended relations with the Portuguese.
Emperor Iyasu I the Great (1682-1706) again subjugated the rebellious vassal princes, tried to carry out a government reform, and streamlined the system of customs and duties to develop trade.
However, from the end of the 18th century, feudal fragmentation intensified again in Ethiopia. Each large (and even medium-sized) feudal lord had his own army. The feudal lords took taxes from the peasants who lived in a communal way of life. Craftsmen were considered a lower caste, and the merchants (mainly Arabs, Turks, Armenians) were connected with the higher feudal strata through clientele relations. The middle strata included military settlers, parish clergy, and wealthy townspeople. The nobility had slave servants, and slavery was also common in nomadic communities.
In the mid-19th century, the petty feudal lord Kasa from Kuara began the struggle to unite Ethiopia into a centralized state. Relying on small-scale feudal lords, in 1853 he defeated the ruler of the central regions, the Ali race, and then, after stubborn battles, defeated the ruler of the Tigre region, the Uybe race. In 1855, Casa proclaimed himself emperor under the name Tewodros II.
Tewodros led a decisive struggle against feudal separatism. A regular army was created, the tax system was reorganized, the slave trade was banned, part of the lands were taken away from the church, and the remaining possessions were taxed. The number of internal customs offices was reduced, the construction of military-strategic roads began, and European specialists were invited to Ethiopia.
However, the introduction of taxes on the clergy led to a conflict with the church, which raised the feudal lords to fight against the emperor. By 1867, Tewodros's power extended over only a small part of the country. In the same year, a conflict occurred with Great Britain, caused by the arrest of several subjects of the British crown in Ethiopia. In October 1867, a corps of British troops (numbering more than 30 thousand people, including Indian support personnel) landed in Ethiopia. By this time, the army of Emperor Tewodros numbered no more than 15 thousand people.
The only battle between the Ethiopians and the British in an open field took place on April 10, 1868: 2 thousand British defeated 5 thousand Ethiopians due to superior discipline and weapons. After this, Tewodros tried to make peace by releasing those arrested and sending a lot of cattle as a gift to the British. However, the British rejected peace and began an assault on the Mekdala fortress, where the emperor was located. Unwilling to surrender, Tewodros committed suicide. The British took Makdela, destroyed all Ethiopian artillery, took the imperial crown as a trophy, and left Ethiopian territory in June 1868.
After the death of Tewodros II, a war for the throne began. Tekle-Giyorgis II (1868-1871) was defeated by Emperor Yohannis IV (1872-1889). He had to repel the Egyptian troops who invaded Ethiopia in 1875. In November 1875, the Ethiopians managed to defeat the main group of Egyptian troops at the Battle of Gundet. However, in December 1875, Egypt landed a new expeditionary force in Massawa. In March 1876, the Ethiopians managed to defeat him at the Battle of Gura. Peace between Ethiopia and Egypt was concluded in June 1884, with Ethiopia receiving the right to use the port of Massawa.
In 1885, Emperor Yohannis IV himself began a war against the Mahdist Sudan. In 1885-1886 Ethiopian troops defeated the Sudanese, but at the same time the Italian occupation of the northern regions of Ethiopia began. The fighting between the Ethiopians and Italians proceeded with varying degrees of success.
In 1888, Emperor Yohannis offered peace to Sudan. However, the Caliph of Sudan Abdallah put forward an unacceptable condition - Johannes's acceptance of Islam. In early 1889, Yohannis personally led an army of 150,000 men into Sudan, and in March 1889 he was mortally wounded in a battle on the border.
The new Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913) suppressed separatism in Gojam and Tigray and recreated a unified Ethiopian state. In 1889, the Ucchial Treaty was concluded between Italy and Ethiopia, according to which Menelik recognized the transfer of the coastal regions to the Italians.
In 1890, Italy united all its possessions on the Red Sea into the colony of Eritrea and announced that, by the treaty of 1889, Ethiopia recognized Italy's protectorate over itself. This led to the resumption of hostilities between Ethiopia and Italy in 1894.
At the end of 1894, Italian troops occupied the cities of Addi Ugri, Addi Grat and Adua. By October 1895, the Italians occupied the entire Tigre region. Emperor Menelik sent 112 thousand troops against the Italians. an army formed from detachments of the rulers of the regions of Ethiopia. On December 7, 1895, at the Battle of Amba Alaga, Ethiopian troops under the command of Ras Makonnin (father of the future Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie) inflicted a major defeat on Italian troops. Emperor Menelik offered peace to Italy, but after refusal, hostilities resumed, and on March 1, 1896, the Battle of Adua took place, in which the Italians were completely defeated.
In 1893-98. Menelik II conquered a number of areas to the south and southwest of Addis Ababa - Walamo, Sidamo, Kafa, Gimira, etc. He issued a decree allowing only prisoners of war to be turned into slaves for a period of no more than 7 years. Menelik intensified the construction of roads, telegraph and telephone lines, and developed domestic and foreign trade. During Menelik's reign, the first hospital was opened in Ethiopia and the first newspaper began to be published. In 1897, Emperor Menelik ordered the establishment of diplomatic relations between Ethiopia and Russia.
First half of the 20th century
After the death of Menelik II in 1913, his 17-year-old grandson Lij Iyasu V became emperor. Ethiopia did not formally participate in the First World War, but Emperor Iyasu actively pursued a rapprochement with Germany, counting on it as an ally in the fight against the British, French and Italians.
In September 1916, Emperor Iyasu was overthrown. Menelik's 40-year-old daughter Zauditu (aunt of the deposed emperor) was declared empress, and 24-year-old Tefari Makonnin was declared regent, that is, the actual ruler. Before this, he (one of the youngest sons of Ras Makonnin) from the age of 16 was the governor of the Sidamo region, then the Harare region. After the 1916 coup, Tefari Makonnin received the title of Ras (roughly equivalent to a prince), and is now revered by fans as the “God of Rastafari.”
After the death of Empress Zauditu Ras Tafari in November 1930, he was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie (1930 - 1974).
In 1931, the first constitution in Ethiopian history was proclaimed. The absolute power of the emperor was asserted, and a bicameral parliament was created (with a chamber of deputies and a senate). It was announced that slavery would be completely abolished within the next 15-20 years.
In 1934-35 Armed clashes occurred on the border of Ethiopia with Italian possessions. In October 1935, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia. For several months, Ethiopian troops put up fierce resistance, sometimes achieving isolated successes. However, on March 31, 1936, the main forces of the Ethiopian army were defeated in the battle of Mai Chow. On May 5, 1936, Italian troops under the command of Marshal Badoglio occupied the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, and on June 1, 1936, Italy announced the inclusion of Ethiopia in the colony of Italian East Africa (together with Eritrea and Somalia).
The Italian occupation of the country continued until the spring of 1941, when the British army, supported by auxiliary forces recruited from the African colonies, liberated Ethiopia and occupied other Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa.
Second half of the 20th century
After the war, Emperor Haile Selassie continued to rule as an absolute monarch. Slavery was abolished in Ethiopia in 1951, mainly due to international pressure. Many of the privileges of the traditional nobility were retained, the press was strictly controlled by the monarch, and political parties were banned.
In 1953, Ethiopia entered into a treaty of friendship and economic cooperation with the United States. Over the next 20 years, the United States provided Ethiopia with financial subsidies amounting to almost half a billion dollars, loans, and free weapons worth $140 million.
By the early 1970s. the regime became completely odious: the emperor was criticized from all sides of the political space, and the catalyst for further events was the famine of 1972-1974, which led to great loss of life.
In 1974, measures to improve the economy resulted in a sharp increase in prices and led to mass protest demonstrations; The situation was exploited by a group of military men with Marxist political views, which organized themselves into a committee called “Derg” in the summer of that year. He led the process of dismantling the monarchy, also known as the “creeping coup.” By mid-autumn, “Derg” had almost completely subjugated all administrative structures and proclaimed a course towards building a socialist society.
Deposed Emperor Haile Selassie I died on August 27, 1975 under suspicious circumstances - officially due to ill health. In 1976-1977, the Derg strengthened its position by reprisals against opponents, both royalists and separatists, and “leftists”; this campaign is also known as the "Red Terror". Mengistu Haile Mariam became the leader of the Derg at this stage. As a result of a change in foreign policy guidelines, from 1975 to 1991, the USSR and Eastern European countries provided comprehensive assistance to Ethiopia.
Taking advantage of the country's difficult situation during this period, the Somali army intensively supported the separatist movement of ethnic Somalis in the country's southeastern Ogaden region, and in 1977-1978 attempted to annex the Ogaden by force. These events are known as the Ogaden War. Cuba, the USSR and South Yemen provided great assistance in the fight against the enemy of Ethiopia.
He was never able to accomplish the task of bringing Ethiopia out of a feudal society into a communist regime. Attempts to collectivize agriculture only led to its further degradation. In 1984, a famine broke out in the country, far surpassing in scope and number of victims the pandemic of the early 70s. Mengistu's government also failed to resolve the Eritrean issue; Eritrean rebels continued the armed struggle for independence that began in 1961, and government troops were never able to suppress their resistance.
In the late 80s, amid the growing crisis in the USSR, Mengistu's government found itself in a critical situation, and was eventually overthrown in May 1991 as a result of the activities of an alliance of rebel movements, in which Eritrean groups played the main role.
A group of rebel leaders came to power in the country, with the convictions of extreme left-wing Marxists, who began as supporters of Enver Hoxha, then changed their ideological orientation to a more liberal one. Since then, the country has been permanently led by a representative of this group, Meles Zenawi, first as president, then, after the introduction of a parliamentary republic, as prime minister.
Among the internal political events of recent history, those surrounding the 2005 parliamentary elections stand out, when the opposition accused the authorities of rigging the results and brought tens of thousands of their supporters into the streets; as a result of the clashes, several dozen people died, thousands were arrested.
In the field of foreign policy, the Zenawi government allowed Eritrea to secede in 1993, but then there came a period of cooling of relations with the former allies who came to power in the new state. The nadir in relations between neighbors was reached in 1998-2000, when the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict broke out in the border zone, ending with a slight margin in favor of Ethiopia. The issue of the border between the countries still remains unresolved.
In 1997, 2000 and 2006, Ethiopia also took an active part in the fate of Somalia. In the latter case, the Ethiopian army defeated the formations of local Islamists and installed a transitional government loyal to Ethiopia, led by Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, in Mogadishu.
Last changes: 04/26/2013Despite the fact that Ethiopia is officially recognized as a secular state, the population is extremely religious. The dominant religions (Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Sunni Islam) have a strong influence on daily life. Many laws and regulations are based on religious norms, and this may also apply to tourists. For example, manifestations of homosexuality are unacceptable in Ethiopia; you should not publicly show tenderness of feelings even in heterosexual couples.
It is recommended to exercise maximum caution in your diet. Concepts about food storage may differ significantly from those accepted in Europe, which leads to poisoning and illness. It is not recommended to drink tap water, but rather use bottled mineral water even for brushing your teeth.
The country is very poor. Most of the 80 million population live in rural areas and are illiterate. They love to beg.
Officially, upon departure, you can reconvert the amount for which you have certificates of the original exchange, minus $30 for each day spent in this country. But in practice, Addis Ababa airport officials refuse to convert more than a hundred birr.
Last changes: 04/26/2013How to get to Ethiopia
By plane
There are no direct flights between Russia and Ethiopia. The best fares are offered by Turkish Airlines (via Istanbul), EgyptAir (via Cairo) and Emirates Airline (via Dubai). Ticket price 600-1000 USD (round trip).
National carrier Ethiopian Airlines flies to Ethiopia from some European cities (London, Paris).
By train
The only 782-kilometer railway line connecting Ethiopia with the outside world runs from Addis Ababa to the neighboring state of Djibouti. For a long time, passenger traffic was not carried out due to inconsistency in the implementation of border formalities between Ethiopia and Djibouti. The message has now been restored.
Trains depart several times a week and arrive at their destination after 24 hours of travel. Trains are usually crowded, so it is recommended to reserve tickets in advance.
In fact, the trip between Addis Ababa and Djibouti consists of two parts - from Addis Ababa to Dire Dawa (450 kilometers) and Dire Dawa - Djibouti by another train. Tickets for both trains can be purchased at the Addis Ababa train station. The fare depends on the class and ranges from $10 to $40.
It is important for train travelers to remember that visas are not processed at land border crossings, in which case you should arrange your Ethiopian and Djiboutian visas in advance.
Ferry
After Eritrea gained independence, Ethiopia lost access to the sea, and all communication with the outside world is carried out through the seaport of the neighboring state of Djibouti.
By bus
There is no regular bus service between Ethiopia and neighboring countries. Tourists traveling through the countries of the region usually get to the desired border crossing, cross it on foot and continue on local transport. Buses provide access to border crossings with Djibouti, Kenya and Sudan. The border with Somalia and Eritrea is currently closed.
By car
The following border crossings open to vehicles operate between Ethiopia and neighboring countries:
Djibouti: Ferate/Dewele checkpoint, main road from Addis Ababa to Djibouti and Lofefle/Balho checkpoint on a minor road in northern Djibouti;
Ethiopia in the mid-19th century - 1935. Creation of a large centralized state. The struggle of state power against feudal particularism and external aggression. Only a united, strong Ethiopia could resist the expansion of European colonialists. An important role in the unification of Ethiopia was played by Kaca, the son of a small feudal lord from Kuara. In 1853, relying on small-scale feudal lords, he gathered a small army around himself and defeated the ruler of the central provinces, Ali, and then, after stubborn battles, defeated in turn Uybe, the ruler of Tigre and the ruler of Shoa, Nguse Haile-Malekota. In 1855, Kaca proclaimed himself Emperor of Ethiopia (nguse negest) under the name of Tewodros (Fedor) II (see. Feodor II), thereby ending the custom of appointing nominal emperors from the “Solomon Dynasty”. Tewodros managed to eliminate feudal anarchy for some time. The creation of a large and disciplined army was begun; for the first time in the history of Ethiopia, a salary was established for soldiers; all state revenues were consolidated in the hands of the ruler, and taxes on the rural population were reduced; an attempt was made to prohibit the slave trade; the number of internal customs offices, which hampered trade, was reduced and road construction began; Some of the lands were taken away from the church, and the remaining properties were taxed. At the same time, Tewodros suppressed any manifestations of sectarianism, departure from orthodox Christianity of the Monophysite persuasion, as well as Judaism and Islam, considering these religious teachings as an ideological expression of separatism. The reforms begun by Tewodros met with stubborn resistance from local feudal lords and were not completed.
The creation of a centralized state was accompanied by military campaigns against rebellious feudal lords, which caused additional exactions from the peasants. As a result, Tewodros' enemies later managed to win over a significant part of the peasantry to their side.
The fierce internal struggle in Ethiopia was complicated by the intervention of British agents who bribed feudal lords dissatisfied with the new regime. At the end of 1867, England started a war against Ethiopia, during which the Ethiopian army was defeated by significantly superior enemy forces (see Anglo-Ethiopian War of 1867–1868). Theodoros II, not wanting to surrender, shot himself. Soon, however, the British troops, due to the active hostility of the people of Ethiopia, as well as serious difficulties in the supply of food and drinking water, were forced to leave Ethiopia. When leaving, the British command left part of the weapons to one of the contenders for the imperial throne, Kace, the ruler of the Principality of Tigre, who in July 1871, at the Battle of Adua, completely defeated his rival, the ruler of the Wag Gobese region, who had strengthened himself in central Ethiopia and declared himself emperor in 1868 under named after Tekle Giyorgis. On January 21, 1872, Kaca was crowned Aksum under the name John (Yohannis) IV. While fighting against increasing feudal separatism, John IV managed to subjugate a significant part of the country, with the exception of some areas, primarily the provinces of Shoa and Gojam. Having gradually achieved formal recognition of the central government by the largest feudal lords of the country, John IV was forced to make big concessions. The strongest feudal lords - the ruler of Shoa Menelik (Mynilik) and the ruler of Gojam Tekle Haymanot - were given the highest title in Ethiopia (after the emperor) nguse (negusa). Both Nguse had their own armies and actually enjoyed almost complete independence.
The desire of John IV to gain access to the sea, on the one hand, Egypt's actions against Ethiopia, inspired by European advisers, on the other, led to an escalation of conflicts and open hostilities (major battles took place in 1875 and 1876 between both states). In the 1980s, Ethiopia was drawn into a war against the Mahdist state, which was facilitated by England. In June 1884, John IV, the English Rear Admiral Hewitt and the representative of Egypt signed an agreement, according to which the Emperor of Ethiopia committed to facilitate the withdrawal of the Egyptian Khedive's troops from Kassala, Amediba, and Sanhit besieged by the Mahdists through Ethiopia to the port of Massawa. Ethiopia received the right to freely transport all goods through Massawa, including weapons and ammunition. The Khedive pledged to return by September 1, 1884 the territory occupied by Egypt back in 1872.
Italy took advantage of the weakening of Ethiopia as a result of the bloody war with the Mahdists. In 1882, the port of Assab (Asaab), acquired by an Italian shipping company back in 1869, passed into the hands of the Italian government. In 1885, Italy captured the port of Massawa, as well as a number of points on the Red Sea coast between Massawa and Beilul. Having strengthened themselves in Massawa, Italian troops began to advance deeper into Northern Ethiopia. When the demands of the Ethiopian authorities to clear the occupied areas were not met, hostilities began, during which Italian troops initially suffered a major defeat at Dogali (January 1887) and retreated to Massawa, but in December 1887 they again began to advance inland. The tension in Ethiopian-Sudanese relations forced John IV to refrain from taking decisive action against Italy. Preparing for a battle with the Mahdists, John IV at the end of February 1889 set out with an army of 150 thousand people from Gondar; On March 9, the Ethiopian troops under his command launched a fierce attack on Gallabat-Matemma; the battle, during which John IV was mortally wounded, ended in victory for the Mahdists. John IV's successor, Menelik (Mynilik) II, put an end to the wars with the Mahdists, suppressed feudal separatism in Gojam, Amhara, and later Tigray, and recreated a unified Ethiopian state. In 1889, he declared Addis Ababa the capital of the country. Meanwhile, Italy made new attempts to strengthen its position in Ethiopia. In May 1889, an unequal Treaty of Friendship and Trade was concluded between Italy and Ethiopia (see article Italo-Ethiopian Treaties), according to which some territories in northern Ethiopia, in particular the Asmara region, were ceded to Italy. As “compensation”, Ethiopia received, according to the additional convention, 30 thousand rifles, 28 guns and 4 million liras from the Florence Bank (half of which actually went to pay for weapons). After the treaty was signed, Italy continued to expand its African possessions at the expense of Ethiopia. In January 1890, the Italians occupied Adua, the main city of Tigre. At the beginning of 1890, Italy united its possessions on the Red Sea into a colony - Eritrea. Using its own “interpretation” of the Italian text of one of the articles of the Uchchala Treaty (which differed from the Amharic text), the Italian government announced that Ethiopia had allegedly recognized the Italian protectorate. The Ethiopian government lodged a strong protest; in February 1893, Menelik II announced to the Italian government the termination of the Treaty of Uchchala and its amendments. In July 1894, Italian troops again opposed Ethiopia, and in 1895 they launched a wide offensive (see article Italo-Ethiopian Wars). However, the aggressor met courageous resistance. On December 7, 1895, Ethiopian troops inflicted the first defeat on Italy at the Battle of Amba Alaga. Menelik II approached Italy with a peace proposal, which was rejected by the Italian government. The position of the Italian troops during February 1896 continuously deteriorated due to intensifying raids by Ethiopian partisans and food shortages. On March 1, 1896, the Battle of Adua took place, which decided the outcome of the war in favor of Ethiopia. After the Battle of Adwa, no major military battles took place. On October 26, 1896, a peace treaty was signed in Addis Ababa, according to which Italy recognized the full independence of Ethiopia. In the fight against Italian aggression, the Ethiopian government took advantage of the contradictions between the colonial powers; he managed to obtain weapons and money from France, which was trying to weaken its rivals in Africa. Ethiopia received assistance from Russia, which sought to prevent the strengthening of the positions of England and Italy in Northeast Africa and was interested in the existence of an independent Ethiopia. The sympathies of the advanced Russian public were on the side of the Ethiopian people. In Russia, a private initiative was held to raise funds to provide medical care to Ethiopian soldiers. A detachment of the Russian Red Cross Society was sent to Ethiopia, which provided assistance not only to the Ethiopian army, but also to the civilian population.
During the reign of Menelik II, several events were carried out aimed at the economic and cultural development of the country and strengthening the state. The government promoted the construction of roads, telegraph lines, and the development of domestic and foreign trade. Trying to overcome the political fragmentation of the country, the Ethiopian government began to appoint rulers of provinces and regions from the capital (sometimes it left the old hereditary rulers in place, provided they recognized the authority of Menelik II). However, the new rulers were still endowed with almost unlimited power, had troops at their disposal, and used various fees for personal enrichment. In an effort to eliminate arbitrariness in tax collection, Menelik II issued a law in 1906 that established a certain amount of tax revenue for each province. Some measures were taken to limit slavery. In 1889, a law was passed prohibiting the enslavement of anyone other than prisoners of war (for the latter, the period of slavery was limited to seven years). However, there were no significant changes in the situation of the Ethiopian peasantry. It was especially difficult in the lands annexed to Ethiopia, where the “gebbar” system, long practiced by the Ethiopian emperors, was widely used (its essence was that the military garrisons located on the new lands and the entire administrative apparatus had to be supported by local peasants). In general, throughout the country, under Menelik II, there was a strengthening of landownership, expressed, in particular, in the fact that some lands, granted for a time to the military and persons close to the court, were gradually turned into private property.
In 1893–1899, the Ethiopian government, trying to prevent imperialist takeovers in the South, South-West and South-East of the country, annexed the regions of Walamo, Sidamo, Kafa, Gimira, Ogaden, Ayca and others, many of which were once part of the Ethiopian empire. However, the threat of colonial enslavement of Ethiopia did not disappear. In 1906, England, France and Italy concluded, despite the vigorous protests of the Ethiopian government, agreement to divide Ethiopia into spheres of influence . Nevertheless, the government of Menelik II, through skillful maneuvering, managed to defend the political independence of Ethiopia. Nevertheless, the “peaceful” penetration of monopoly capital (in particular, the USA and Germany) led to the partial economic subjugation of the country. In 1909, Menelik II retired from government due to a serious illness. In 1913, he died and his grandson Lij Iyasu (Yassu) became emperor. At this time, there was an intense struggle within the ruling elite in Ethiopia. In 1916, a palace coup was carried out: Lij Iyasu was overthrown, after which a kind of dual power arose in the country: the daughter of Menelik II Zoudita was proclaimed empress, and Tafari Makonnen (Tefari Makonnen) was proclaimed regent. Tafari Makonnen was the leader of the “Young Ethiopians” - supporters of reforms aimed at strengthening central government power and creating conditions that would ensure the economic and political development of the country. The “Young Ethiopians” were supported by some feudal lords, whose farms gradually acquired a commercial character, representatives of the small trading bourgeoisie and the emerging intelligentsia. The opposite group, which supported Zoudita (“Old Ethiopians”), consisted of conservative circles of large secular feudal lords and the clergy. While advocating the preservation of formal external state unity, they rejected the need for any transformations. All the most important ministerial posts were in the hands of the “Old Ethiopians”; they held power in many provinces, especially in the northern part of the country. Their position, however, weakened significantly after the death of Minister of War Habte Giyorgis in 1926, when the imperial army came under the control of the regent. Relying on the army, Tafari Makonnen suppressed two armed rebellions in 1928, organized by the leaders of the “Old Ethiopians”. In September 1928, he was awarded the highest title in the country (after the emperor) nguse. From that time on, Empress Zouditu was effectively removed from power. In 1930, there was a new uprising of the "Old Ethiopians". This uprising was also suppressed, and in November 1930, after the death of Zooditu, Tafari Makonnen was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia under the name Haile Selassie I. Under the new emperor, monetary reform was carried out, the number of internal customs offices was reduced, the tax system began to be streamlined, and highway construction was intensified. expensive In 1931 and 1936, new laws were passed (following the laws of 1918 and 1923–1924 to limit slavery) to free slaves. But the liberation of slaves, which met resistance from their owners - secular feudal lords, the church, merchants and officials, proceeded very slowly. In 1933, the abolition “in principle” of the “gebbar” system was decreed.
In 1931, the Ethiopian government adopted the first constitution in the country's history aimed at eliminating feudal rule. separatism and the creation of a uniform management system. At the same time, the constitution preserved the power of the emperor as an absolute monarch, essentially independent of the parliament created by the constitution (both houses of parliament - the Chamber of Deputies, elected by the nobility and representatives of local authorities and approved by the emperor, and the Senate, whose members were appointed by the emperor from among the highest civil servants and officers were deprived of legislative initiative). Measures were taken to create a centralized modern army. The number of primary and secondary secular schools has increased slightly. However, the pace of economic development remained extremely low; The manufacturing industry was represented mainly by semi-handicraft enterprises.
In the early 30s, the threat of new aggression against Ethiopia from fascist Italy emerged. Italy concentrated large contingents of troops armed with the latest technology in its African colonies - Eritrea and Italian Somalia. In 1934–1935, Italy provoked several border conflicts, the most serious of which was the clash at the oasis of Wal-Wal (Wal-Wol; December 5, 1934). By avoiding a peaceful settlement of border disputes, the Italian government hoped to use them as a pretext for an attack on Ethiopia.
M. W. Wright. Moscow.
Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 16. ZHANG WEN - TIAN-YASHTUKH. 1976.
By the middle of the 19th century. the country was in decline, torn apart by constant internecine fights between feudal lords. There was a hint of change when, in the early 1850s, Casa from Cuara, the son of a small feudal lord from the North, appeared on the political arena of the country. His actions aimed at creating a strong central government found support among the peasants, who suffered most from feudal fragmentation. A period came in the history of Ethiopia when the policies of the ruler began to largely subordinate to the interests of the people. The threat of external danger that existed on the northern borders of the state also played a certain role in the centralization of the country. Here it was necessary to engage in battles every now and then with the Egyptians, who cherished plans to capture all of Ethiopia.
In the 30s of the XIX century. Three politically autonomous associations emerged in Ethiopia. This is Gondar, where Ras Ali was the ruler. This is Tigre and Simen. And finally, Shoah. Emperor Yohannus III was in fact only the nominal head of Ethiopia. Kasa Hailiu (future emperor) was born in 1818 in northern Ethiopia into the family of a petty feudal lord. He served as a soldier in his uncle's detachment. Leaving his uncle's service a few years later, Casa organized his own detachment. People from all over the region began to flock to him.
Kasa became an increasingly prominent figure in the Amhara political arena. His rise to power involves battles with the vassals of the ruler of the region, increasing his army and ultimately defeating the troops of Ras Ali himself. After defeating one of the most powerful rulers of Ethiopia, Ras Ali, and in June 1853, all of Northern Ethiopia, with the exception of Tigray, came under the control of Kasa. In the decisive battle with the army of the ruler of Tigray, the question of the future emperor of Ethiopia was practically decided. The battle took place on February 10, 1855. Having won, literally the next day after the battle, the coronation ceremony of the new emperor of Ethiopia took place. He adopted a new name - Tewodros, the name that the people attributed to the expected messiah. During his coronation, Tewodros II (1855-1868) declared his first priority: “I swear by this crown of my ancestors that I will gather under my rule all the provinces that in the past were part of the empire.” Of the large regions of the state that retained their independence from the central government, the Shoa region remained. By this time, the emperor's army numbered about 60 thousand warriors and had no equal. The Shoan army was not ready to fight back. Having conquered the last independent region of Ethiopia, Tewodros completed his primary task. The emperor made the city of Magdala in the center of the country the capital of the united Ethiopia. »
The unification of Ethiopia was carried out through military means. Tewodros used weapons to force individual feudal lords to submit to imperial power. This, however, did not mean that they forever abandoned their struggle for independence. Between 1855 and 1S57 alone, 17 attempts were made on the life of the emperor. This prompted a response from Tewodros - the use of brutal, ruthless measures against riots and conspiracies. He tried, through repression, to preserve the political unity of the state, which was constantly threatened by revolts of the feudal lords.
At a certain stage, the Christian Church also became in opposition to Tewodros. Although from the very beginning the Ethiopian church found in him a zealous preacher of religious dogmas, who throughout his reign defended the “true faith” with word and sword, nevertheless, a conflict between the emperor and the clergy occurred. It was based on purely economic reasons. Tewodros could not come to terms with the fact that no taxes were transferred from church properties to the state treasury. Measures aimed at undermining the economic position of the church aroused fierce resistance from it. Unlike feudal uprisings, which were local in nature, the church acted as a united front. In the process of his reforming society, the peasants also began to move away from Tewodros. Their mood was influenced by church anti-government sermons and speeches against him by their feudal overlords, but most importantly, by the continuing situation of complete lack of rights.
After completing his military campaigns, the emperor began to carry out a series of internal reforms. He reorganized the system of public administration, dividing the country into smaller districts than before and placing loyal people in charge. Taxes now went directly to the imperial treasury, and not as before - to the treasury of the feudal lords. Tewodros tried to deprive large feudal lords of the right to have their own courts and their own armies.
One of the emperor's decrees concerned the abolition of the slave trade. It also contained an order that all people of the state find work for themselves. The decree read: “So that the peasants return to agriculture, the merchants to trade and each person to his work.” According to the emperor, this was supposed to stop the banditry that was spreading in the country.
Innovations also affected the judicial system. Tewodros declared himself supreme judge and every day found time to deal with the complaints of his subjects. In all regions of the country, judicial officials were appointed who administered justice in the name of the emperor, while the right to death penalty was the prerogative of the emperor himself. Attempts were made to reform in the field of morals. Namely, Tewodros opposed the widespread polygamy in the country. He issued a law that every Christian could have only one wife. To set an example, he himself removed all his concubines.
In matters of relations between church and state, he did everything possible to change the previous situation, when the church had a decisive influence on secular power. Now he sought to subordinate her to secular power.
Tewodros paid most serious attention to the army. The attempt to create a national regular army was accompanied by the establishment of salaries for soldiers and the introduction of a system of training troops. With the desire to strengthen the combat power of the army and increase its mobility, he intended to establish the production of his own weapons (in particular, guns) and begin building roads.
The first attempt to make a cannon dates back to 1853. Having become emperor, he attracted European artisans who were in Ethiopia at that time to produce them. Several guns were cast, the largest of which, weighing 70 tons, was named “Sevastopol”.
Overall, Tewodros's reforms did not undermine the foundations of Ethiopian feudalism, but were aimed at revitalizing the traditional bureaucratic structure of the empire, but on a clearer and stronger basis. With the death of Tewodros, many of the reforms he initiated quickly came to naught.
Having strengthened his position within the country, the emperor also made big plans in the field of foreign policy. He considered his primary task to be to ensure Ethiopia's access to the sea, the coast of which was dominated by the Turks and their vassal Egyptians.
Striving to establish contacts with European powers, the reason for which was the desire to get artisans and craftsmen sent from there, at the same time, he was well aware of the goals of the African policy of the West. In a conversation with the French consul Lejean, he stated: “I know the tactics of European rulers: when they want to capture an eastern country, they first send missionaries, then consuls to support the missionaries, and finally battalions to support the consuls. I am not an Indian Raja to allow myself to be fooled in this way. I prefer to deal with battalions at once." Therefore, despite his interest in establishing stronger ties with European countries, he flatly refused to open their consulates in Ethiopia. The diplomatic immunity of consular officers was seen by Tewodros as an infringement on the emperor's sacred right to dispose of the lives of people and land in his domains.
The impetus for its beginning was the conflict with England in 1864, associated with the arrest of the British representative at the imperial court, Charles Cameron, for his anti-Ethiopian activities. England's attempts to resolve this conflict through diplomatic channels led nowhere. The decision to send an expeditionary force was made in August 1867.
The internal political situation in Ethiopia, which had developed by this time, was very favorable for an external invasion. The feudal opposition raised its head again. Speeches by opponents of the central government followed one after another. The successes of the rebel forces led to desertion in parts of the imperial army. If at the beginning of 1866 it numbered about 80 thousand soldiers, then by the decisive battle with foreigners only 15 thousand remained at its disposal. By the time the English corps landed, the emperor’s power extended to an insignificant part of the country.
General Robert Napier, a participant in the suppression of the national uprising in India (1857-1859) and the Taiping uprising in China, was appointed commander of the English corps. On October 21, 1867, a corps of 15 thousand soldiers landed on Ethiopian territory. The advance of British troops through the rebel territories met no resistance. In such a situation, Tewodros's few troops had no chance of victory.
After the defeat, the emperor took refuge in his residence in the Mekdela fortress. Tewodros, seeing that he could not repel the attack, ordered the remnants of his troops to leave the fortress, and he himself shot himself.
This time, the capture of Ethiopia was not part of Great Britain's plans, and the expeditionary force set off on the return journey. Before leaving, the British took from the fortress many priceless monuments of Ethiopian writing, including the imperial "Kibre Negest", the sacred book of the Ethiopian people. It was there that the legend of King Solomon, the Queen of Sheba and Menelik I, the founder of the dynasty of Ethiopian emperors, was recorded. They took with them the regalia of the Ethiopian emperors, the golden crown of Tewodros II, many objects made of gold and silver, and blew up the fortress itself.
After the departure of the British, a fierce struggle broke out between new contenders for the imperial crown. The ruler of Amhara, Gobeze, acted most purposefully and energetically. He managed to turn the tide of events in his favor, and he was crowned under the name Tekle Giyorgis II. The three years of his reign were reminiscent of the period of the “times of princes” with their internal political instability. The ruler of Tigray Kas was preparing for a serious fight with the emperor. On January 21, 1872, he prevailed and was enthroned as Emperor of Ethiopia. In accordance with Ethiopian tradition, he took the royal name Yohannis IV (1872-1889).
Having assumed the imperial crown, Yohannis set himself the task of achieving the political unity of the country. He sought to force all the largest Ethiopian feudal lords to recognize his supreme power. Since the imperial army at that time had no equal, he successfully solved this problem in the early 1870s. Only the ruler of Shoa, Menelik, purely formally recognized the power of the new emperor, in fact remaining the independent ruler of his region.
Yohannis IV, unlike Tewodros, did not strive to create an absolutist state, limiting himself to the task of strengthening what he inherited from his predecessors. He sought to develop a sense of state unity among Ethiopians, eliminating interregional contradictions. To achieve this, the emperor tried to achieve the introduction of a single religion for the entire country. He also waged a consistent struggle against supporters of all other religions. This also affected Protestant and Catholic missionaries, whom he ordered to immediately leave the country. A religious policy was also developed towards the non-Christian population of Ethiopia. A consistent supporter of the introduction of a single faith in the country, Yohannis set a period of three years for Muslims to convert to Christianity and five years for pagans. For those who disagreed, corporal punishment and deportation, especially Muslims, were provided for outside the country.
Unlike Tewodros, who came into conflict with the church, Yohannis was full of the flesh of traditional Ethiopian society with its idealization of the past and insensitivity to everything new. If Tewodros relied entirely on military force in his activities to centralize the country, then Yohannis based the unification of Ethiopia on the achievement of common faith among the Ethiopian population.
The greatest danger to the unity and integrity of the country came from outside. In the specific context of the 1870s, the first threat to Ethiopia's territorial integrity came not from the European powers, but from Egypt, a Turkish vassal. In the early 70s, the entire coast from Zeila to Guardafui was under Egyptian control. The plans of the Egyptian Khedive Ismail also included the expansion of Egyptian possessions at the expense of the northeastern regions of Ethiopia. In 1875, the offensive of Egyptian troops began. Under the command of the emperor there was an army of 70 thousand, consisting mainly of northern warriors, whose areas were directly threatened by Egyptian aggression.
The Egyptian troops moved in three columns from the areas of Massau, Karan and Zeila. At the end of September 1875, they captured Harar. Egyptian troops moving from Massau and Karan were defeated by the Ethiopians in November 1875. In March 1876, a second decisive battle took place, in which the Egyptians suffered a crushing defeat.
Later, Ethiopia's territorial claims to Egyptian possessions on the Red Sea and the Ethiopians' desire to gain access to the sea served as the bargaining chip that England used when it needed to push the peoples of the two countries into war in order to suppress the Mahdist movement in Sudan, which began in 1881, and weaken their resistance. European expansion. Emperor Yohannis, seduced by the promise of England and Egypt, now dependent on it, to return the territories seized from Ethiopia, plunged the country into long, bloody wars with the Mahdist Sudan.
Ethiopian-Italian relations
At a time when the Ethiopians were fighting against the Sudanese to please primarily England, a new and more formidable danger loomed over the country: being enslaved by another European power - Italy. The beginning of Italian expansion in the Red Sea area dates back to the late 60s of the 19th century. In 1869, part of the coastal territory of Assab was purchased from local rulers. In 1881, the Italian government declared this territory a colony. In 1883, Italy occupied the port of Massawa and began to seize other territories.
The seizure by the Italians of the former possessions of the Egyptian Khedive on the Red Sea coast did not initially cause much concern among the ruling circles of Ethiopia. But in June 1885, Italy captured the territory of Saati, already located within the empire. The Ethiopians besieged Saati, and in January 1887 they defeated the Italians, who were coming to the aid of the besieged. This victory created enormous enthusiasm in Ethiopia. But the tense internal political situation in the country did not allow the emperor to develop his success and move to Massawa. The continued invasions of the Mahdists in the west and the disloyalty of the ruling elite of Shoah prompted the emperor to resolve the problem of the Italian invasion through diplomacy.
Italy played a double game. In an effort to turn the separatist-minded ruler of Shoa into her ally, she willingly responded to his requests to send firearms. On October 20, 1887, the rebellious vassal Yohannis Nygus Shoa signed a separate treaty of friendship and alliance with Italy, according to which she promised him “military assistance and other assistance in achieving his goals.” Yohannis moved his army to Shoa. But his army, already battered in numerous battles, as well as the army of Menelik, the ruler of Shoa, who had no combat experience, did not dare to enter into combat contact. Long negotiations began, until the Mahdists again invaded the country. In one of the battles with the Mahdists, Yohannis was mortally wounded.
With his death, the country did not split into separate regions, as happened in the case of Tewodros. The change of the supreme ruler, for the first time since the beginning of the process of unification of Ethiopia, did not entail feudal strife; Yohannis remained in the history of the country as a champion of the unification of Ethiopia, as well as the introduction of all-Ethiopian patriotism into the consciousness of the people. Being of Tigrayan origin, Yohannys, whose mother tongue was Tigrinya, introduced Amharic as the official language of the country, the most widely spoken throughout the country. In this he went beyond local nationalism and considered it his duty to protect any part of the Ethiopian empire.
Upon receiving news of the death of Emperor Yohannis, Nygus Shoa Menelik immediately proclaimed himself the supreme ruler of Ethiopia. At that time, there was no one in the country who could realistically act as his rival in the fight for the royal crown. The most significant achievements in the centralization of Ethiopia, which completed its unification up to the modern borders, are associated with his name (his birth name before his coronation was Sahle-Maryam). The period of his reign dates back to the beginning of the processes of modernization of the country, the formation of bureaucracy, the penetration of foreign capital and the creation of a mercenary army.
By the early 1890s, Shoa, ruled by Menelik, had become an economically more developed and politically more stable region of the country than the others, the system of governance of which was subsequently transferred to the entire Ethiopian empire.
The basis of the foreign policy of the Shoan rulers was territorial expansion within the empire and the establishment of connections with the outside world, primarily with European powers. The expansion of the borders of Shoa occurred due to the southern regions, where there were rich trade routes, and the struggle for the annexation of Harar, which attracted the attention of the strategic location and the commercial nature of the economy.
Emissaries from European countries, taking into account the growth and power of the Shoa, themselves sought to establish contact with it. In 1841, a treaty of friendship and trade was concluded with England, and two years later with France. Menelik also placed great emphasis on establishing profitable relations with European powers. Like many of his predecessors, he did not neglect the opportunity to use the technical knowledge and experience of any visiting European. The 1880s witnessed the strengthening of Italo-Shoan ties.
In 1878-1889 the ruler of Shoa significantly expanded the boundaries of his possessions. Expansion into the interior was complemented by movement towards the Red Sea coast. Bringing the borders of Shoa closer to the sea was supposed to stimulate trade within the region and facilitate contacts between the Nygus and European powers. The achievement of these goals was ensured by the annexation of Harar, which until the summer of 1885 was under Egyptian control, and after the defeat of the Egyptians in the war with the Ethiopians, power here passed to a representative of the local dynasty. Harar was captured in January 1887. In parallel with the expansion of the territory of Shoa, the foundations of an interethnic policy were developed, later extended by Menelik to the whole of Ethiopia. Its main features were religious tolerance and assimilation, which resulted in the formation of a unique Amkha-Roorom (Galla) community.
In terms of the degree of centralization of power, Shoa was far ahead of other regions of Ethiopia. The entire territory of the province was divided into administrative districts, the number of which grew as the Shoah expanded. Each of them was headed by a governor appointed by the nygus. The lack of religious fanaticism in the ethnically heterogeneous Shoan society contributed to the fact that, in the interests of the cause, a Muslim was sometimes appointed to a high post, although the general rule was to force the appointee to a high administrative post from representatives of the local nobility in non-Christian districts to convert to Christianity.
The absence of feudal strife in Shoa led to the development of trade and crafts. A significant part of the Shoan treasury was made up of taxes from trade operations, and customs duties from caravans heading through the territory of Shoa were also significant. The prosperity of the region was facilitated by military booty captured during numerous campaigns against non-Christian neighbors, and tribute received from the population of the annexed areas.
During Menelik's 24 years at the head of Shoah, from 1865 to 1889, the area and its population increased significantly - from 2.5 million people in 1840 to 5 million in the early 80s. Huge funds accumulated in the ruler's treasury, a significant part of which was spent on the purchase of firearms. If, for example, in 1850 the Shoan army had only 1 thousand firearms in service, then by 1889 it already had 60 thousand rifles and shotguns.
Reforms of Menelik II. On November 3, 1889, the coronation of Menelik II took place. It took place not in Axum, the traditional place of coronation of Ethiopian emperors, but in the capital of Shoa, Entoto. It was from here that reforms began to be carried out. When starting to reform society, Menelik already had more than twenty years of experience behind him not only in governing the Shoah, but also in relations with European countries.
First of all, the new emperor began to reorganize the administrative system, using Sho-an experience for this purpose. The essence of the reform was to replace local rulers with officials appointed by the emperor himself. The country was divided into provinces, which were divided into districts, and those, in turn, into districts. The smaller administrative unit was a group of villages (addi), and the smallest was the village, where power belonged to the headman. The province was headed by a governor, appointed from the center and endowed with extensive powers. Overall, the reform played an important role in the process of consolidation of the Ethiopian state.
Having strengthened the central power in the localities, Menelik began to implement military reform. He replaced the previously practiced system of stationery with the introduction of a special tax for the maintenance of the army. In 1892, by his decree, he forbade soldiers to continue to be stationed in peasant houses and to demand food from them. Instead, peasants were taxed at one-tenth of the harvest. The replacement of standing with tithes contributed to the improvement of the economic situation in the country, increased labor productivity in agriculture, which stimulated its expansion. In turn, the transfer of the army, although not completely, to state support made it possible not only to improve discipline in the troops, but also to take a step forward towards creating a permanent, regular army.
For the first time since the time of the Aksumite kings, an attempt was made to carry out monetary reform. The first new Ethiopian coins appeared in 1894. However, the Ethiopian currency, the new thaler, was not easily introduced. The population preferred to accept the usual coin - the Maria Theresa thaler. As for the rural hinterland, here trade exchange continued to be carried out on the basis of old, natural equivalents - salt, skins, etc. And this situation persisted throughout the reign of Menelik.
Menelik should be credited with founding the new permanent capital of the Ethiopian state - Addis Ababa (“New Flower”). The capital also became the place from which Menelik led the process of annexing new regions to the empire. The Ethiopian state included vast areas to the south and southwest. In fact, the empire was restored to its former original borders: slightly south of Massawa in the north, the Fashoda region in the west, Lake Rudolf in the south and Aseba in the east.
Associated with the territorial expansion of Ethiopia is the creation of the gabbar system in the annexed regions, which is an Ethiopian version of serfdom. The essence of this system was the allocation of land for feeding soldiers and officials along with the peasants living on it. Part of the land areas of the conquered regions, about a third, was left in the hands of the local nobility, the rest was divided between the soldiers and the crown. In accordance with this, three social groups were formed: the landless peasantry (gebbars), small landowners (local nobility and conquering soldiers) and the feudal aristocracy.
Even six months before his coronation, Menelik II signed a treaty of friendship and trade with Italy in May 1889 in the town of Ucciale. The articles of the treaty concluded the following: eternal peace and friendship between the two countries was declared; exchange of diplomatic representatives; resolution of controversial border issues by a special commission consisting of representatives of both sides; allowing Menelik to carry out free transit of weapons through the port of Massua under the protection of Italian soldiers up to the Ethiopian border; free movement of citizens of both states on one and the other side of the border; guarantees of religious freedoms, extradition of criminals, abolition of the slave trade, and trade issues. The agreement contained many beneficial clauses for Italy. One of them recognized for Rome the entire territory captured in the north of the country, including Asmara. This article was like a “birth certificate” of a new Italian colony in Africa.
The most controversial was Article 17 of the treaty, which soon gave rise to serious disputes related to its interpretation. Everything was contained in the non-identity of the Amharic and Italian texts. The Amharic text said: “His Majesty the King of the Kings of Ethiopia may use the services of the Government of His Majesty the King of Italy to negotiate all matters with other powers and governments.” In the Italian text, the word "may" was replaced by the word "agree", which in Rome was interpreted as "shall". It turned out that Menelik transferred issues related to foreign policy into the hands of Italy. This meant that she was establishing a protectorate over Ethiopia, which she notified other European powers. Subsequently, this discrepancy between the texts of the article and their interpretation led to war.
Italo-Ethiopian War and Battle of Adua
On February 12, 1893, Ethiopia denounced the Treaty of Ucchiala. Rome, convinced of the futility of its efforts to impose a protectorate on Ethiopia through diplomatic means, resorted to direct armed intervention. On the eve of the Italian aggression, Menelik managed to equip the army with modern small arms, acquire more than 100 thousand rifles, which with the existing ones amounted to about 200 thousand guns. Simultaneously with preparations for war, the Ethiopian emperor conducted diplomatic negotiations, with the help of which he wanted to strengthen the position of his country in the international arena. Menelik agreed to give the French a concession to build a railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa. He sent a special embassy to the Russian Tsar in St. Petersburg. As a result, Ethiopia has established very close and intimate relations with Russia.
In December 1894, Italian armed forces crossed the border into Ethiopia. Menelik announced a manifesto in which he called on the people to wage war against the aggressors. The manifesto said: “Enemies have come to us from across the sea; they invaded our land and seek to destroy our faith, our fatherland. I endured everything and negotiated for a long time, trying to save our country. But the enemy is moving forward and, acting deceptively, threatens our country and our people. I am going to speak out in defense of my fatherland and hope to defeat the enemy. Let everyone who is able follow me, and let those of you who are weak to fight pray for the victory of our weapons.”
In October 1895, the emperor, at the head of his vanguard, numbering 25 thousand infantry and 3 thousand horsemen, set out from Addis Ababa and headed towards the enemy. In total, under his command there was an army of more than 100 thousand. In early December 1895, the 15,000-strong vanguard of the Ethiopian army defeated a 2.5-thousand-strong Italian detachment in the battle that took place. The Battle of Amba Alaga had a huge psychological impact on the Ethiopians: the idea of the invincibility of Italian weapons was dispelled. The Ethiopians celebrated their next victory in January 1896, when the 1,500-strong Italian garrison of Mekele surrendered after a long siege. Reinforcements were requested from the metropolis.
The number of colonial troops by the beginning of 1896 reached 17 thousand people. Having concentrated the main forces near Adua, the commander-in-chief of the Italian army, General Oreste Baratieri, chose a wait-and-see tactic. Menelik's army also reached the Adua region. The number of his army exceeded the Italian corps, but there was a lack of modern artillery and combat training of Menelik's soldiers compared to the Italians.
At the end of February 1896, a fierce battle broke out along the entire front near Adua. Poorly oriented in the area, the command of the Italian troops inaccurately determined the disposition of their troops, and the planned general battle turned into uncoordinated battles, which was to the advantage of the Ethiopians. Having fired shells even before the general battle, the Italian artillery turned out to be useless. The Ethiopians contrasted military training and discipline with perseverance and courage. The Battle of Adua was a disaster for the Italian army. In this battle, the enemy lost 11 thousand people killed, about 3.6 thousand were captured. The Ethiopian side also suffered losses - 6 thousand killed and 10 thousand wounded.
On October 26, 1896, the Italo-Ethiopian peace treaty was signed in Addis Ababa. It contained the following articles: ending the state of war between both sides and establishing “for all time” peace and friendship between Italy and Ethiopia. The annulment of the treaty signed at Ucchiala, Italy's recognition "fully and without any restrictions" of the independence of Ethiopia.
Interest in Ethiopia in Russia has existed for a long time: because of the similarity of religions, because of the Ethiopian origin of the Hannibal family, the ancestors of A.S. Pushkin. Since the 1870s, a geopolitical factor has also increased, primarily associated with the opening of the Suez Canal. On the private initiative of the Cossacks, led by Ataman N.I. Ashinov, the village “New Moscow” was founded at the exit from the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden.
Since the mid-1890s, the actions of official Russia have also intensified in Ethiopia. The Russian government announced its support for Ethiopia in its rebuff of Italian aggression. At the same time, her moral support from Russia - in the press and through diplomatic channels - was combined with the provision of military and humanitarian assistance. So, at the beginning of 1896, 30 thousand Berdankas, 5 million cartridges and 5 thousand sabers were transferred to Ethiopia. A fundraiser was launched to help wounded Ethiopians, and a detachment of the Russian Red Cross was sent to the country, setting up a hospital in Addis Ababa. Strengthening Russian-Ethiopian ties at the end of the 19th century. led to the establishment in 1898 of diplomatic relations between both countries at the mission level. Ethiopia became the first country in Africa with which Russia established diplomatic relations.
The lack of direct political and economic interests in Ethiopia allowed Russia to take the place of a benevolent adviser to the Ethiopian emperor. The Russian mission, led by P. M. Vlasov, was tasked with “earning the trust of the Negus and, if possible, protecting him from the machinations of political rivals, especially the British, who are pursuing such ambitious, predatory goals in Africa.”
Russian officers who came to Ethiopia took direct part in the military expeditions of the Ethiopian troops, and also, fulfilling the assignment of the Russian General Staff, explored the country, its nature, population, flora and fauna. Russia then had a clearer and clearer idea of Ethiopia than most Western European states.
Basic moments
The territory of modern Ethiopia is included in the most ancient region of the formation of human ancestors: the age of stone tools discovered here is estimated at approximately 3 million years. In almost all eras of antiquity, the country was relatively densely populated, developed economically, and from the first centuries of our era powerful states existed on its territory. In the 4th–6th centuries, Ethiopia conducted brisk trade with the Roman-Byzantine Empire, India, and the countries of the Middle East. At the same time, Christianity penetrated here. Only for short periods did Ethiopia find itself under the rule of one or another European state (for example, at the end of the 19th century, Italy formed the colony of Eritrea, which lasted only a few years).
The western and central part of the country is occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands with an average height of 1800 m above sea level, although some mountain ranges and peaks reach 3000 and even 4000 m. The highest peak in Ethiopia is Mount Ras Dashan (4623 m) in the Simen Mountains. In general, the plateau is characterized by flat-topped mountains that look like giant tables. Cones of volcanoes, mostly extinct, rise above the plateau. Their dilapidated craters often form lakes surrounded by a border of tropical greenery. From the Red Sea to the south, Ethiopia is crossed by a fault zone (northern part of the Great African Rift system). In the deep Afar depression, separated from the Red Sea by the low Danakil ridge, at 116 m below sea level lies the salt lake Assale. The Awash River valley and the chain of rift lakes (the largest is Lake Abaya), stretching towards Lake Rudolph in neighboring Kenya, separate the Ethiopian Highlands from the Ethiopian-Somali Plateau occupying the south-east of the country with prevailing heights up to 1500 m and individual peaks up to 4310 m (Mount Batu). Due to active faults, Ethiopia is characterized by increased seismicity: earthquakes up to magnitude 5 occur annually, and even stronger ones every five years. There are also many hot springs in the rift zone.
The largest river in the country is Abbay (Blue Nile). Flowing from Lake Tana, Abbay forms the large and picturesque Tis-Ysat waterfall, and then flows for 500 km in a canyon 1200–1500 m deep. Other large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are Webi Shebeli and Juba, as well as another tributary Nila - Atbara.
The climate of Ethiopia is subequatorial hot, seasonally humid, in the northeast it is tropical desert and semi-desert. The Afar Depression is one of the hottest places on Earth (average minimum temperature 25 °C, maximum 35 °C), but in most of the highlands, due to the height, which softens the heat, average monthly temperatures range from 15 to 26 °C. Night frosts occur in the mountains. Moreover, on the coasts the hottest month is May, the coldest is January, and in the mountains it’s the other way around: the coolest month is July, the hottest are December and January. Rain falls mainly from July to September, although there is also a “small wet season” in March–April. The dry season lasts from September to February. Average annual precipitation - from 200–500 mm on the plains to 1000–1500 mm (even up to 2000 mm) in the mountains of the central and southwestern regions. The plains often suffer from severe droughts, with no rain almost all year round.
A third of the country's territory is occupied by deserts and semi-deserts, the rocky deserts of the Afar depression and the Danakil desert are especially lifeless. In the east of Ethiopia there are grass savannas and forest savannas with umbrella-shaped acacias, and in the southwestern part of the country, in river valleys and in the mountains at altitudes of 1700–1800 m, tropical rainforests with palm trees, wild coffee trees, spurge trees, and sycamores grow (giant ficus). At altitudes above 3000 m, tropical analogues of alpine forests are developed. The fauna is still rich, despite the extermination of animals over the centuries: in the savannas there are elephants, zebras, antelopes, lions, servals, leopards, hyenas, and in the Danakil semi-desert - ostriches. The world of birds is especially diverse, and in the coastal waters of the Red Sea the fauna of coral reefs is of great interest. To protect the fauna, reserves and national parks have been created: on the Awash River, Lake Abiyata, Mannagesha Forest Park, etc.
Most of the Ethiopian population (total - about 103 million people) refers to the Ethiopian race - as if intermediate between Caucasoid and Negroid. Fine features, wavy hair, tall stature and chocolate-colored skin make most Ethiopians extraordinarily beautiful. The peoples of the country speak Semitic (these include the state language - Amharic) and Cushitic languages. Part of the population belongs to the Negroid race. The Amhara and Oromo people make up 3/4 of the population. The two main religions are Islam and Christianity, but approximately 10% of residents adhere to local traditional beliefs. The main occupations are agriculture, cattle breeding, and crafts. Most residents build round huts with a cone-shaped thatch roof. Traditional clothing is preserved - long dresses and capes, often decorated with ornaments and rich embroidery.
The capital of the country, Addis Ababa, located at an altitude of 2400 m, is called the “city of eternal spring” due to its temperate climate all year round. The city was founded in 1885, but now it is dominated by modern buildings. Addis Ababa is famous for its huge bazaar. The second largest city, Asmara, is located in the north of the country. It is also considered the most comfortable and beautiful city in Ethiopia. Gondar (north of Lake Tana) Until the mid-19th century, it was the capital of the empire, as evidenced by the castles of the 16th–18th centuries; it houses a historical museum.
Cities of Ethiopia
All cities in Ethiopia
Sights of Ethiopia
All sights of Ethiopia
Story
The modern territory of Ethiopia belongs to the most ancient, East African, area of the formation of humans as a biological species. The age of archaeological finds of the remains of Australopithecus and Homo habilis in Ethiopia is estimated at 2.5-2.1 million years. During the formation of the first state formations in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the settlement of Ethiopia by representatives of the Semitic-Hamitic, Nilotic-Cushitic and other linguistic groups began. The formation of the most ancient associations in the south of the Arabian Peninsula - the Hadhramaut, Qataban and Sabaean kingdoms - ca. 1000 BC e. accelerated the process of resettlement of part of the population from South Arabia (modern Yemen) to modern Eritrea and Northeastern Ethiopia. As a result, by the 7th century BC. e. these territories were included in the Sava kingdom. It was this circumstance that allowed early medieval Ethiopian propaganda to proclaim the Ethiopian royal family of the Solomonids as descendants of the Israelite-Jewish king Solomon and the biblical Queen of Sheba, known in the Ethiopian tradition as Makeda or Bilqis.
The ancient Greeks called all blacks in Africa, especially the Nubians, Ethiopians, but now this name is reserved for the territory also known as Abyssinia. It was here that at the beginning of our era, as a result of the unification of a number of small tribal formations known from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. A large kingdom of Aksum was formed, which reached its greatest prosperity in the 3rd-6th centuries. n. e. Aksum conducted active trade with Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Parthia (later - Persia), India, exporting ivory, incense and gold in large quantities. During its period of political dominance in the region, Aksum extended its influence to Nubia, South Arabia, the Ethiopian Highlands and northern Somalia. Since the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (IV century) The increased penetration of Christianity from Egypt, Rome and Asia Minor into Aksum begins, associated with the preaching of the teachings of Christ by Edessius and the first bishop of Abyssinia, Frumentius. The year 329 is considered to be the founding date of the Monophysite Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which remained dependent on the Egyptian Coptic Church until 1948. By the 6th century, Christianity established itself as the dominant religion in Ethiopia, which became the first Christian country in Tropical Africa. In 451, during the schism of the Christian Church, at the Council of Chalcedon, the Copts spoke out in support of the Monophysite trend, and representatives of the Ethiopian Church took the same position.
At the beginning of the 6th century, in order to take revenge for the oppression of the local Christian population by their rulers, the army of King Kaleb of Aksum invaded southern Arabia. Around the same time, Judaism began to penetrate into Ethiopia, which had a noticeable influence on the rituals of the Ethiopian Church; In addition, some Aksumites became followers of Judaism. (The descendants of these Falasha converts in the north of the country have now almost entirely emigrated to Israel. Their emigration began in the mid-1980s and ended in 1991.) Although the Aksumite ruler Armah provided refuge to the early followers of the Prophet Muhammad during the persecution of them in Arabia in the 7th century, the spread of Islam led to the isolation of the Aksumite kingdom. The Ethiopians hid behind their rugged mountains and, as Gibbon wrote, “slept for almost a thousand years, forgetting about the world around them, which also forgot about them.” However, many of the country's rulers tried to maintain ties with Western European Christian countries.
According to Ethiopian tradition, the genealogy of the imperial family goes back to the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. It is believed that the hereditary right to the imperial throne of the Solomonic dynasty was interrupted for about two centuries by representatives of the Zague dynasty. At the end of the 13th century. The ruler of Shoa ascended the throne, proving his belonging to the Solomonids. This was followed by a period of religious and cultural revival, when royal chronicles and numerous works of a spiritual nature were created, the most significant of which was the Cabre Nagest (Glory of kings), containing the narrative of the Queen of Sheba's journey to Jerusalem.
At the end of the 15th century. A small group of Portuguese and other Europeans, setting out in search of the kingdom of High Priest John, the stuff of legends in medieval Europe, arrived in Ethiopia. The Portuguese hoped to make this Christian country an ally in the fight against Muslims and the growing Ottoman Empire. After 1531, Ethiopia began to suffer one defeat after another from the army of Imam Adal Ahmed ibn Ibrahim, known as the Edge (Left-handed), and lost most of its territory, the emperor turned to Portugal for help. In 1541, a Portuguese detachment of 400 people, led by Christopher da Gama, the son of the famous navigator Vasco da Gama, landed in Massawa. Most of the detachment, including its leader, died in the battle with the Muslims. With the assistance of the surviving Portuguese, a new Ethiopian army was created, which was armed with muskets (until that time, only the warriors of the Edge had firearms). In 1543, this army defeated the enemy, and Ahmed Gran himself died in the battle.
Attempts by the Portuguese, and later by the Jesuits, to impose Catholicism on the population of the country led to numerous conflicts. Eventually in 1633 the Jesuits were expelled from Ethiopia. Over the next 150 years, the country was almost completely isolated from Europe. The foundation of the capital in Gondar dates back to this period, where several stone castles were built. In the middle of the 18th century. The emperor's power fell into decline, and the country was engulfed in feudal strife. In 1769, the English traveler James Bruce visited Ethiopia, trying to find the sources of the Nile. In 1805, the English mission acquired a trading port on the Red Sea coast. At the beginning of the 19th century. Other Europeans also visited the country. In 1855 Tewodros, one of the most capable military leaders of the time, seized the imperial throne, restored the power and authority of the supreme power and attempted to unify and reform the country.
After Queen Victoria did not respond to a letter sent to her by Tewodros for two years, several British officials were thrown into prison at Mekdel by order of the Emperor. All attempts to achieve their release through diplomatic methods led to nothing. In 1867, a military expeditionary force under the command of General Robert Napier was sent to Ethiopia to free the prisoners. Having disembarked from ships on January 7, 1868 in the town of Mulkutto on the shores of Zula Bay, Napier’s detachment, numbering more than 10 thousand people, moved through difficult mountainous terrain on a 650-kilometer journey to Mekdela. The British received aid and food from local residents dissatisfied with Emperor Tewodros, primarily the Tigrayans. Tewodros, whose power by this time had been shaken, and the ranks of the imperial army had thinned out, was also advancing towards Mekdela from the other side. On April 13, 1868, this mountain fortress fell under the pressure of British troops. During the assault, not wanting to fall into the hands of enemies, Tewodros shot himself. Soon British troops left Ethiopia.
After the death of Tewodros, Yohannis IV, the ruler of Tigray, an ally of the British in their war with Tewodros, became emperor. His turbulent twenty-year reign began with the suppression of attempts by other claimants to seize the throne. Subsequently, Yohannis had many battles with external enemies: Italians, Mahdists and Egyptians. The Italians, who acquired the port of Assab back in 1869, in 1885, with the consent of the British, captured Massawa, which had previously belonged to Egypt. In 1884, Great Britain and Egypt promised the emperor that Ethiopia would receive the right to use Massawa, but the Italians soon closed access there and began to systematically move deeper into Ethiopia. In January 1887, the emperor's soldiers defeated the Italians at the town of Dogali and forced them to retreat. Then Yohannis entered into hostilities with the Mahdists, who continually invaded Ethiopia from the territory of Sudan. In March 1889 he was mortally wounded in one of the battles. Negus Shoa Menelik became the Emperor of Ethiopia, who for several years enjoyed the support of Italy. Shoah Menelik carried out successful military campaigns against the rebellious provinces and achieved significant consolidation of the Ethiopian state. During his reign, reforms aimed at modernizing the country began.
On May 2, 1889, shortly before the official act of coronation, Menelik concluded the Treaty of Uchchal with Italy, according to which the Italians received the right to occupy Asmara. Outwardly, very friendly relations were established between the two countries. However, the mentioned agreement became the source of many problems. The Amharic copy of the treaty provided that Ethiopia, if it deemed it necessary, could resort to the “good offices” of Italy in relations with other powers. The Italian text of the treaty stated that Ethiopia was obliged to do just that. In practice, this meant complete Italian control over Ethiopia's foreign policy. Using its text of the treaty, Italy declared that, based on the provisions of the General Act of the Berlin Conference of 1885, it has the right to establish its own protectorate over Ethiopia. The persistence of Italian diplomacy in defending a favorable interpretation of the Uchchala Treaty led to its denunciation by the Ethiopian side on May 11, 1893.
In 1895-1896, Italian expansion in the region continued with an attempt to increase colonial possessions at the expense of Ethiopia, but the military campaign of the Italian expeditionary force, supported by Eritrean auxiliaries, ended in a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Adua. The Negus of Ethiopia was in a position where he could have tried to win back part of Eritrea, but chose a peace agreement.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a dynastic conflict took place in the country, the result of which was the installation of Emperor Haile Selassie on the throne, who carried out limited reforms in the country aimed at modernizing Ethiopian society.
In 1935-1936, Fascist Italy again invaded Ethiopia. The invaders had complete advantage in military terms, but still used chemical weapons several times. The League of Nations condemned the aggression sluggishly and was inconsistent in imposing sanctions, which Soviet historiography saw as an important stage in the dismantling of the collective security system in Europe. The Italian occupation of the country lasted until 1941, when the British army, supported by auxiliary forces recruited from the African colonies, retook Ethiopia and Eritrea.
After the war, Selassie continued to rule as an absolute monarch. By the beginning of the 70s, his position was criticized from all sides of the political space, and the large-scale famine of the early 70s, which led to large casualties, contributed greatly to further events.
In 1974, measures to improve the economy resulted in sharp price increases and led to mass protest demonstrations; The situation was exploited by a group of military men with Marxist political views, which organized themselves into a committee called “Derg” in the summer of that year. He led the process of dismantling the monarchy, also known as the “creeping coup.” By mid-autumn, “Derg” had almost completely subjugated all administrative structures and proclaimed a course towards building a socialist society. From 1975 to 1991, the USSR and Eastern European countries provided comprehensive assistance to Ethiopia.
On August 25, 1975, deposed Emperor Haile Selassie I died under suspicious circumstances. In 1976-1977, the Derg strengthened its position by reprisals against opponents, both royalists and separatists, and the “leftists”; this campaign is also known as the "Red Terror". Mengistu Haile Mariam became the leader of the Derg at this stage.
Taking advantage of the country's difficult situation during this period, the Somali army intensively supported the separatist movement of ethnic Somalis in the country's southeastern Ogaden region, and in 1977-1978 attempted to annex the Ogaden by force. These events are known as the Ogaden War. Cuba, the USSR and South Yemen provided great assistance in the fight against the enemy of Ethiopia.
He was never able to accomplish the task of bringing Ethiopia out of a feudal society into a communist regime. Attempts to collectivize agriculture only led to its further degradation. In 1984, a famine broke out in the country, far surpassing in scope and number of victims the pandemic of the early 70s. Mengistu's government also failed to resolve the Eritrean issue; Despite large-scale military operations against the separatists, a decisive victory was never achieved.
In the late 80s, amid the growing crisis in the USSR, Mengistu's government found itself in a critical situation, and was eventually overthrown in May 1991 as a result of the activities of an alliance of rebel movements, in which Eritrean groups played the main role.
A group of rebel leaders came to power in the country, with the convictions of extreme left-wing Marxists, who began as supporters of Enver Hoxha, then changed their ideological orientation to a more liberal one. Since then, the country has been permanently led by a representative of this group, Meles Zenawi, first as president, then, after the introduction of a parliamentary republic, as prime minister.
In the field of foreign policy, the Zenawi government allowed Eritrea to secede in 1993, but then there came a period of cooling of relations with the former allies who came to power in the new state. The nadir in relations between neighbors was reached in 1998-2000, when the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict broke out in the border zone, ending with a slight advantage for Ethiopia. The issue of the border between the countries still remains unresolved. In 1997, 2000 and 2006, Ethiopia also took an active part in the fate of Somalia. In the latter case, the Ethiopian army defeated the formations of local Islamists and installed a transitional government loyal to Ethiopia, led by Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, in Mogadishu.
Culture
Ethiopia is the only traditionally Christian African country. One of its main religions is Eastern Christianity (Ethiopian Church), the position of Islam is also strong in all peripheral regions. The Ethiopian Church adheres to Monophysitism.
According to the 1994 census: Christians - 60.8% (Orthodox - 50.6%, Protestants - 10.2%), Muslims - 32.8%, African cults - 4.6%, others - 1.8%.
For a long time, literature was created mainly in the Gyiz language and had mainly religious content. True, already at the end of the 13th century. The first royal chronicles appeared on parchment. In the 19th century The first works in the Amharic language were created, and shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, the first printing press appeared in the country. Not least in order to support the development of modern literature in the Amharic language, during his regency, Emperor Haile Selassie I founded the Byrkhan Enna Salam publishing house. ("Light and Peace"). Most literary works were characterized by a moralizing orientation. Many dramatic works were created after the country's liberation from Italian occupation, and they were staged either on the stage of the National Theater or by university students. In the early 1990s, Addis Ababa published three daily newspapers in Amharic and one in English.
The traditional fine arts of Ethiopia were predominantly Byzantine in style. After 1930, commercial art, focused on the needs of tourists, received significant development. Works of this kind often featured the plot of the Queen of Sheba’s visit to King Solomon, and they were a series of popular prints, each of which complemented the other. Around the same time, artists began to paint the walls of taverns and bars with images of national heroes and saints.
The cuisine of Ethiopia is in many ways similar to the cuisine of its neighboring countries - Somalia and Eritrea. The main feature of Ethiopian cuisine is the absence of cutlery and plates: they are replaced by figs - a traditional teff flatbread. Another striking feature is the presence of a large number of spices.
Coffee is the pride of Ethiopia. Entire rituals have been developed here, similar to Chinese tea ceremonies, from roasting coffee beans to drinking coffee.
There are many vegetarian dishes in Ethiopian cuisine - there are many Muslims and Orthodox Christians here who observe strict religious fasts. In general, Ethiopian cuisine is distinguished by a wide variety of tastes and aromas, created through a unique combination of spices and vegetables.
Economy
The basis of the Ethiopian economy is low-income consumer agriculture. In the 70s, economic growth was no more than 5%. And revolutionary changes led to an even greater decline in GDP growth. The economic situation was also complicated by Ethiopia's loss of ports on the Red Sea. Severe droughts and crop failures led to a humanitarian catastrophe at the end of the 20th century. By the end of the 20th century, Ethiopia's economic situation began to improve. GDP growth was about 8% per year. Thanks to the easing of customs regimes, the level of investment in the country's economy has increased. The main investors are China, India and Saudi Arabia. The basis of economic development in recent years has been foreign loans and humanitarian aid.
Agriculture is the main sector of the Ethiopian economy, providing 85% of jobs. It provides about 45% of GDP and 62% of the country's exports. Coffee accounted for 39.4% of exports in 2001-2002. Coffee is Ethiopia's gift to the world. This country is the main producer of Arabica coffee in Africa. Tea is another important crop. Endowed with vast agro-climatic zones and diverse resources, Ethiopia processes all types of grains, fibers, peanuts, coffee, tea, flowers as well as fruits and vegetables. More than 140 varieties are currently processed in Ethiopia. Potential rainfed land is estimated at 10 million hectares. Livestock farming in Ethiopia is one of the most developed and numerous in Africa. Fishing and forestry are also significant industries. There is great potential for investment in these industries.
Ethiopia's varied agro-climatic conditions support the cultivation of a wide range of fruits, vegetables and flowers. Vegetable growing and flowers are the most dynamically developing sectors of the economy. In 2002, more than 29,000 tons of fruit products and 10 tons of flowers were exported. It is no exaggeration to say that the floriculture sector is the most attractive for investment in the entire Ethiopian economy.
Ethiopia is the largest country in Africa in terms of livestock population and is also among the ten largest in the world in terms of this indicator. There are 35 million cattle, 16 million sheep and 10 million goats in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia has 3.3 million beehives and is Africa's leading producer and exporter of honey and beeswax. This industry provides excellent investment prospects.
Industry accounts for approximately 15% of GDP. The food, textile, leather, woodworking, chemical and metallurgical industries are mainly developed. During the first quarter of 2001, Ethiopia exported approximately 54.8 million birr worth of food products.
The financial sector is very underdeveloped, which slows down the country's development. There is no stock exchange in Ethiopia. Banking is underdeveloped.
Policy
Ethiopia is a federal parliamentary republic with a prime minister as the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is concentrated in the hands of two chambers of parliament. The head of state is the president.
According to Article 78 of the Ethiopian Constitution, the judiciary is completely independent from the executive and legislative branches. However, according to foreign research reports, Ethiopia ranks 106th out of 167 countries in the ranking of democratic government. It is ahead of Cambodia, which is in 105th place; Burundi follows Ethiopia in 107th place.
In June 1994, elections were held to the constituent assembly, of which 547 deputies became members. In December of the same year, the assembly adopted the modern Constitution of Ethiopia. In May and June 1995, Ethiopia held its first popular elections for a national parliament and regional elections. However, most opposition parties decided to boycott these elections. As a result, the Ethiopian People's Democratic Revolutionary Front won. International and non-governmental observers concluded that the elections were conducted without irregularities, and opposition parties were able to participate in the elections if they so wished.
We learn materiel. We bring to your attention a brief illustrated history of brotherly Ethiopia according to Lonely Planet (translated, with additions). The turbulent history of the people of Ethiopia is replete with unexpected turns, dramatic dilemmas and bloody wars. Oddly enough, this is somehow reminiscent of the history of the Slavs, seemingly so distant geographically and genetically. But most importantly, both of them continue to develop, tempering in the crucible of global and regional cataclysms.
3.2 million years BC
Lucy meets her end and awaits discovery and glory for more than three million years underground. Ethiopia uses it as the foundation for its claim to be the birthplace of humanity.
3500-2000 BC
The ancient Egyptians traded with the country of Punt, which many scholars place somewhere on the Eritrean or Somali coast.
2000-1500 BC
Somewhere in Northern Ethiopia, the Ge'ez language developed, the predecessor of Arabic and Amfaric - the modern state language of Ethiopia. Surprisingly, Ge'ez is still spoken by priests in Ethiopia and Eritrea.
1500-400 BC
A civilization develops in Northern Ethiopia under strong Arab influence. The first capital of the state, Yeha, is being built. However, its founder remains unknown. Historians still have not figured out who was more important: either Yeha and Africa ruled Arabia, or vice versa.
955-587 BC
The Holy Ark of the Covenant, made by Moses to contain the Ten Commandments, disappears from Jerusalem at some point during this period.
400 BC – 200 AD
The Aksumite kingdom is formed, it flourishes on trade along the Red Sea and rich natural resources. The first mention of it is found in the book “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea” (first century AD).
200-500 gg
The great Aksumite kingdom reaches its apogee, controlling the lands from the Nile to Arabia. It is considered one of the most powerful powers of the Ancient World.
300-325 gg
The Great Obelisk in Axum collapsed. This catastrophic event marks the end of the era of paganism and the emergence of Christianity in Ethiopia.
400-500 years
The famous “Nine Saints” arrived in Northern Ethiopia. This was a group of Christian missionaries who spoke Greek. Christianity is strengthening as the main religion throughout the region.
615 g
The daughter of the Prophet Mohammed and his follower escape from Arabia to avoid execution. They bring Islam to Ethiopia. Some believe that the Christian king allowed them to stay because he thought they were persecuted Christians.
640-750
The Aksumites lose control of trade in the Red Sea, and their kingdom ceases to exist. Ethiopia begins a long period of “time of troubles” about which almost nothing is known.
1137–1270
Out of the “troubled times” of Ethiopia emerges the Zagwe dynasty, which, with the help of divine powers, produces the incredible churches of Lalibela, hewn from a stone monolith.
1165-1670
Rumors are circulating throughout Europe about Prester John, a powerful Christian king ruling Ethiopia. As this rumor heats up, it claims that he will help the Christians of Europe retake the Holy Land.
1270 g
Emperor Yekuno Amlak, declaring himself a descendant of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, founded the Solomonid dynasty. She will remain in power for the next 500 years. Ethiopia enters the well-documented Middle Ages.
1400 g
The French aristocrat Duke de Berry sends the first embassy to Ethiopia. In turn, the Ethiopians go to Europe, where many remain in churches, especially in Rome. Contacts are being forged in an attempt to counter the increasingly threatening Muslim superpower.
1400-1600
The birth of the national epic of Ethiopia, Kebra Negast. Exactly when this happened remains controversial.
1490-1529
Mahfuz declares jihad against Christian Ethiopia and begins a series of religious wars, the bloodiest in the country's history. His heir, Ahmed Gragn the Left-Handed, ultimately defeats the emperor. The state was on the verge of complete destruction.
1529-1542
Ahmed Gragn Left-Handed continued his military expansion and by 1532 captured most of eastern and southern Ethiopia. In 1542, near Lake Tana, he defeated the allied army of the Ethiopians and Portuguese.
1543-1559
Emperor Galavdevos, with the help of the Portuguese, eventually defeated and destroyed the Muslim invader Ahmed the Left-Handed. Fighting continues until Galavdevos himself is killed in an attack on the city of Harar.
1550 g
Oromo nomads from Kenya begin a wave of migration north. For another 200 years, the country plunges into an era of intermittent armed conflicts. It was during these times that Harar was surrounded by a wall.
1582 g
Most of Christendom adopts the updated Gregorian calendar, but Ethiopia retains the Julian calendar. Today he is seven years behind.
1629 g
Emperor Susenhos converts to Catholicism in order to obtain military assistance from the Portuguese, and tries to force the people to follow his example. His subjects are dissatisfied, a civil war begins, in which about 32,000 people die.
1636 g
Emperor Fasiladas establishes Gondar, the first permanent capital since Lalibela. In addition, he expels all foreigners from the country and closes the borders tightly. The new capital blossoms and Ethiopia enters its new golden age.
1706-1721
The court of Gondar is plunged into turmoil, because intrigues, conspiracies and political assassinations become something of a hobby for the courtiers.
1755-1855
Emperor Iyasu II dies and the central government of Gondar quickly collapses. Ethiopia slides back into a state of disintegration, followed by a century of continuous civil war and robbery.
1855
Kassa Hailu proves to be more cunning, faster, and more unscrupulous than his rivals, resulting in him ascending the throne as Emperor Tewodros. He unifies feudal Ethiopia and embarks on ambitious programs to modernize the country.
1855-72
Tewodros builds numerous roads, creates a regular army, and establishes the Ampharian language ahead of Ge'ez as a means of daily communication. But in the end he makes the mistake of sending a group of British subjects who visited his court to prison.
1872-76
Kassa Merch helps the British remove Tewodros, wins the competition with the heir apparent Emperor Tekla Giyorgis and becomes Emperor Johannes.
1875-76
The Egyptian army attempts to invade the country, but Yohannes organizes effective resistance and is victorious.
1888
The Italians import cattle, from which an epizootic plague begins. This is compounded by a severe, prolonged drought and a locust invasion. As a result, a famine begins throughout the country, which lasts four years.
1889
Emperor Menelik, who follows Johannes, signs a treaty of friendship with Italy and transfers to it the region that is now Eritrea. In the same year, the construction of Addis Ababa, which means “New Flower,” begins, and it becomes the capital.
1896
Emperor Menelik amazes the world by defeating the Italian army at the Battle of Adwa. The 1889 Treaty of Friendship is annulled, Italy recognizes the independence of Ethiopia, but holds tightly to Eritrea.
1913-16
Emperor Menelik dies. The reins of power pass to Lij Iyas. But he is soon replaced by Menelik's daughter, Zewditu, who rules with the help of a regent, Ras Tafari Makonnen.
1915
Thanks to two enterprising engineers with shoemaking skills, the construction of the railway from Addis Ababa to Djibouti is completed. Before giving them carte blanche for strategic construction, the emperor checked whether these two could make shoes for him in one night while locked up. The guys didn't disappoint. As a result, the economy of all of Ethiopia, and especially the capital, benefited greatly from its access to the sea.
1930
After Zewditu's death and years of careful maneuvering, Ras Tafari receives the crown as Emperor Haile Selassie and the title of God's Chosen.
1931
Ethiopia receives its first written Constitution, which gives the emperor near-absolute power. Even the body of Haile Selassie is declared sacred.
1935
Italian invasion of Ethiopia. The use of prohibited chemical weapons - mustard gas, and systematic bombing of civilian targets, including Red Cross hospitals, lead to the death of 275,000 Ethiopians. Italian losses amount to 4,350 people.
1936
The Italians capture Addis Ababa, Selassie flees the country. Mussolini triumphantly declares: “Ethiopia belongs to Italy!” The King of Italy is made Emperor of Ethiopia.
In June, Haile Selassie asked the League of Nations for help, but the League lifted sanctions against Italy.
1937
The 1,700-year-old Aksum obelisk is being dismantled and transported to Italy. In 1998, Italy agreed to return it, but the war between Ethiopia and Eritrea prevented this operation until 2003.
1940-50
Ethiopia has its first national bank, a new national currency (birr), its first university, and its first (and only) national airline, Ethiopian Airlines.
1941-42
The armed forces of the British Commonwealth, together with the Ethiopian army, liberate the country from Italian occupation. Haile Selassie regains his throne and Ethiopia regains its independence. In subsequent years, the country modernized rapidly.
1960
In Ethiopia, dissatisfaction with the autocratic rule of the emperor is growing. His bodyguards prepare a plot, but it is suppressed by the army and air force.
1962
The headquarters of the Organization of the African Union is established in Addis Ababa. Haile Selassie unilaterally annexes Eritrea. Eritrean separatists begin a brutal guerrilla war.
1972-74
A terrible famine hits the country, killing about 200,000 people. This turns the population against the emperor even more, and student protests begin in the streets.
1974
After years of growing discontent and intensifying street protests, Haile Selassie was unceremoniously dethroned from the imperial throne on September 12. On December 20, the communist organization “Derg” (in Amharic - council, committee, namely the temporary military administrative council) announces the creation of a socialist state in Ethiopia.
1975
The last emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, dies under investigation. The cause of death is unknown, but many believe that he was personally smothered with a pillow by Mengistu, one of the leaders of the Derg. The Tigrayan People's Liberation Front is founded in northern Ethiopia. He begins an armed struggle for autonomy. The objects of the first attacks of his fighters are a prison and a bank, which they robbed.
1976-90
The collectivization of agriculture begins, mass resettlement of tribes is carried out, placing them in villages. One of the declared goals of all this is the fight against hunger. Most experts agree that the effect was the opposite.
1977
Lieutenant Colonel Mengistu Haili Mariam becomes the leader of the Derg. He turns to, among other countries, the Soviet Union and Cuba for help.
1977-78
In the south, the Somali army invades the Ogaden region to support ethnic Somali unrest and seize that part of the country. Ultimately, Somalia is defeated by the Ethiopians, but only thanks to strong military support from the Soviet Union and Cuba. During these same years, the Derg began brutal persecution of dissidents. Thousands of people are dying from this “red terror”.
1984
Israel carries out Operation Moses: in six weeks it secretly evacuates 8,000 Ethiopian Jews to their historical homeland by air.
1984-85
In the hills of Ethiopia, nearly a million people are dying of hunger. The causes of famine are both climatic and political. Various charitable organizations headed by the famous rock musician Bob Geldof (starring in the film “The Wall” Pink Floyd) provide considerable assistance.
1991-93
The USSR ceases to exist. Accordingly, the partisans come out of hiding and defeat the Derg. The experiment with communism in Ethiopia ends, Mengistu Haile Mariam flees to Zimbabwe to another bloody dictator Mugabe, where he remains to this day, enjoying life.
1992
The remains of Haile Selassie are discovered hidden under a concrete slab in the toilet of the royal palace. In the end, eight years later they are reburied in the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity. There are far fewer mourners than the funeral organizers predicted, only a few thousand 
1993
As a result of the referendum, Eritrea gains its long-awaited independence. Relations between neighbors are excellent at first.
1995
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is proclaimed and elections are held. Former guerrilla commander Meles Zenawi becomes prime minister.
1996
The Italian Defense Minister is eventually forced to admit the use of mustard gas during the Abyssinian campaign.
1997
Eritrea abandons its common currency with Ethiopia - the birra - and introduces its own - the nakfa. This leads to aggravation of relations between neighbors.
1998-2000
The leaders of Ethiopia and Eritrea are waging war over a strip of barren, barren land. By the end of hostilities, 70,000 people are dead and tens of thousands are displaced.
2000-01
A peace agreement is signed between Ethiopia and Eritrea and a demilitarized zone is established along the borders under UN supervision.
2001
Two Ethiopian scientists discover fossilized remains believed to be human, 5.8 to 5.2 million years old. They were tentatively named the subspecies Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba.
2002
A monument to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is unveiled in Addis Ababa (a bronze bust by sculptor A. Belashov, a gift from the Moscow Government). The poet's poems are read in Russian and Amfaric languages, the monument is consecrated by the Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church Abuna Paulos. This is the first and only monument to Pushkin in Africa, but the historical homeland of his ancestors is most likely located in Ethiopia.
2005
After the May 15 elections, the opposition accused the authorities of fraud. Mass protests end tragically when government troops open fire on unarmed protesters. Thousands of people, including opposition politicians, journalists and newspaper editors, are being arrested by the police.
2006
Construction begins on the giant Jibe III Dam, the largest in Africa. Its environmental and social impacts are controversial and debate is raging on this issue.
2006-09
Ethiopia invades Somalia to destroy the Islamist alliance. Its regular units were defeated, but the Ethiopian army became bogged down in guerrilla warfare and was eventually withdrawn in 2009. During these same years, tensions between Ethiopia and Eritrea again reached a boiling point, and both sides began massive troop movements to the border. Fortunately, mutual claims can be resolved peacefully.
2007
In September, Ethiopia officially celebrates the Millennium, the dawn of a new millennium, according to its archaic Julian calendar.
2008
The mandate of UN troops in the demilitarized zone is running out after "disruptive restrictions" imposed by Eritrea. After the peacekeepers leave, the two nations watch each other nervously. At the same time, separatist guerrillas are becoming more active in northern Ethiopia.
2012
Mengistu Haile Mariam announces that he has begun writing his memoirs. In 2012, a preliminary version appeared on the Internet in the form of a leak.
2011
At the end of the year, the Ethiopian army, allied with the African Union coalition and Kenyan troops, again invades Somalia. This is an attempt to support the Somali government in its armed fight against al-Shabaab insurgents.
2012
Prominent Ethiopian journalist Iskander Nega is being jailed for 18 years for violating anti-terrorism laws after he published an article questioning arrests on a similar charge.
Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church Abune Paulos died in July. Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, who dominated the political scene throughout the region for more than 20 years, died in August. His successor is Haile Mariam Desalein.
The story continues during our journey around.